Introduction
The level of fear of crime across different groups within the community is a major contributor to the Governments' focus on the type of support communities require to maintain the feeling of safety. By understanding the dynamics of fear, we are able to predict areas of likely crime through understanding the psyche of the 'predator' and 'alpha' type crimes along with other illegal activities. Due to the generally accepted level of safety within the majority of Australia's westernised communities, a common low level of continuous fear to immediate self is evident. Therefore, to qualify this assessment, the Fear of Crime between genders will be considered across multiple situations rather than localities. The analyses derived in this paper are borne from research surveys delivered across a general and random sample of the local community. This will provide an insight into the relationship between gender and vulnerability to crime; whether it is perceived or actual. The study is limited by number of people in one country and can be treated as base for developing further research.
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Previous Research
We all must know and understand fear of crime which is explained as people's emotional response to crime. It can be safely admitted from the surveys conducted that women has more fear of crime than other population groups. Fear of crime is associated with perceptions of local problems, derived mainly from a high incidence of physical and social incivility. Women have been observed to be amongst the most vulnerable groups. There are number of communities having large fear of crime amongst all the population. The problem can be classified as crime as it serious for any segment of population to live with fear of crime. The fear problem has emerged as serious concern since last three decades, and statistical figures of Australian women indicate that women's fear of crime is greater among those who have lower incomes, those in the older age groups, and those living with a partner.
Women fear is characterised by dual nature namely: concrete and formless fear. Concrete fear is the fear associated with certain crimes. The implicit assumption here is that some criminal activities cause more fear than others. For example, rape fear is much more than fear than theft. Formless fear, however, is a more generic or less specific fear of crime. Younger generations have reported higher levels of both types of fear. Studies conclude that younger women reported highest results for concrete fear, or fear of specific crimes. Women consider fear of rape equivalent to fear of murder. Fear is stronger in single as compared to married women. Additionally, experiencing specific offences is better predictor of fear from specific happenings than others. The degree of fear may differ from low to high level. Studies are conducted by providing specific situations to the respondents about the degree of anxiety and fear from the situations. The situations are common in our general routine e.g. a) walking in their neighborhood at night, b) taking public transport, c) using a parking garage, and d) being home. The response categories are segregated as level of fear as: not at all worried (0), and worried (1). Logistic regression was utilized to determine the effect of demographic, experiential, and behavioral variables on fear in four situations. Majority of women narrated having at least once incidence of violence in last 12 months, approximately two thirds (66.4%) of respondents reported receiving an obscene phone call, while three out of five reported receiving unwanted attention from a stranger. Almost one third (32.4%) reported being followed by a stranger in a way that frightened them. A large proportion of women reported being somewhat or very worried walking in their neighborhood at night (61.0%). Factor of personal income is not significant factor in predicting fear while using public transportation. Women with higher levels of education were 5.2 percent more likely to be worried while in the transportation situation, 5.1 percent more likely to report being worried while in a parking garage alone at night, but 3.2 percent less likely to report fear while home alone in the evening (Scott, 2003).
Research studies also indicate that women who have already experienced violence, especially victims of domestic violence, become more fearful for crime as against other women. It was surprising to note from the revelations that 58 per cent of female homicide victims have assailants who are intimates/former intimates. These facts provide a strong argument for early intervention to prevent domestic violence and provide assistance to dysfunctional and violent families. In another survey from the sample of 6333 respondents, approximately 70% of the
Women felt unsafe when walking alone in their area after dark, which is higher than the percentages reported by the 1996 British Crime Survey (47%) and the 1991 Queensland Crime Victims Survey (45.3%). However, these figures are much lower than the result obtained in a study carried out in Edinburgh in 1992 (Carcarh, Mukherjee, 1999).
Fear of Crime in the Home
Under the crimes at home, there is important contribution of domestic violence. Under this aspect though domestic violence can impact both genders but the history confirms that chances of crime against women are high. This is mainly due to reason that women may be exposed to domestic violence at home on regular basis. The domestic violence is a crime and involves sexual abuse (whether you are married to the other person or not); physical abuse or assault (for example, slapping, biting, kicking, and threats of physical violence); damage to property or anything you value; economic abuse, that is, when the other person keeps money to which you are legally entitled, emotional abuse (that is, degrading or humiliating behaviour, including repeated insults, belittling, cursing and threats), and any other controlling or abusive behaviour which poses a threat to your safety, health or well-being. It was been amazing to observe that Women living with a partner are likely to experience greater fear of violence. The research shows that even the conclusion drawn by Madriz's (1997) indicated that women victims of domestic violence have to face violence at home and violence on the streets that other women face, which increase their level of fear of crime in the community. Women facing physical violence by males will report fear from crime double than the women who have not experience physical violence at all. These results support Madriz's (1997) finding that women victims of domestic violence have to face violence at home and violence on the streets that other women face, which would increase their level of fear of crime in the community (Carcach, Mukherjee, 1999).
The Gender Difference in Fear of Crime
Studies have indicated that though both genders are prone to crime but majority of the studies confirm the gender differential is the most consistent finding in the literature on fear of crime.
There is reporting of fear of crime by women at levels that are three times that of men (Chan, 2008). Since last three decades, there has been lot of concern about women safety in the police communication in Australia, England, Canada and Wales. Police and local authorities issued safety advice to women. One of the research studies conducted (Grade 1989) focus on crime prevention indicating women as prime consumers of targeted advice about personal safety. However, review of data shows that young men are most at risk to personal violence in public. Despite this, women are considered the most important constituency for guidance about danger.
Literature Review
The effects of demographic variables on fear are mixed. There may be number of incidents of events which can create fear in the minds. One of such thinking is when people walk alone in one's neighborhood at night. Where many demographic variables increase fear while walking in one's neighborhood or being home alone at night (i.e. lower education levels, lower reported personal income, and living in an urban area). Majority of people understand fear of crime centered on findings using respondent's feelings of fear or worry while walking in their neighborhood at night. There is another fear i.e fear of strangers which has been suitably referred to as "stranger danger." During childhood, all of us are told to be wary of strangers. Women fear the danger posed by strange men even though statistics show that women are more likely to be victimized by individuals they know. It would appear that they are most afraid of the surprise sexual attack by the unknown assailant, despite the fact that statistics and public service media campaigns are making women aware of dangers of dating and marital situations. Number of survey reports discuss about the fear of crime and indicate relatively small but statistically significant differences between fear rates expressed by men and women. Majority of women are believed to be fearful of crime; and all men fearless (Gilchrist, 1988). Studies are limited to explain why women might harbor anxiety about their personal safety. Skogan and Maxfield (1981) suggest that women's fear of crime is because of their physical and social openness. Women's fear of sexual assault i.e. fear of rape also causes lack of safety amongst the women.
Research Questions
This research is to assist with the targeting of safety programs and the determination of focus for future community groups and activities. This paper will address the problem of which gender within the local community fears crime, whether actual or perceived, and the times that they feel most unsafe. By understanding this, programs can be directed towards these groups and the understanding of safety and their options when confronted with a situation can be addressed.
Based on collected statically data this paper will directly address the aspects of the genders influence of the fear of crime:
Do the different genders fear crime differently?
What affect does age have on females' fear of crime?
Do females feel safer at home during the day or evening?
Due to the results of the above previous research and general perception within the Westernised Urban Australian culture, it is expected that females will report a higher level of fear of crime. Because of this the second and third questions within this report will focus on the different generations and locations in which female's fear crime; including showing the amounts in which it various.
If the results unexpectedly show that males are more fearful of crime, then the questions regarding the female generations' and locations' effects of their perceived fear are still warranted and are able to be used to target female related programs.
Method
This analysis utilises data collected by previous research groups over the past few years. This offers the advantage of including the 'indexing' of generations over time allowing a slightly more average and round return compared to a frozen snapshot in time. The survey was conducted across all age groups from varying social-economic backgrounds and cultures. Also the location spread of the survey focuses on South East Queensland however reaches into other states and some samples are returned from overseas (Micronesia).
Sampling was conducted via a take home survey with instructions included. There was a directed expectation of integrity of answers, which created minimal cross-contamination. Immediately upon completion, surveys were to be returned via either mail or in person allowing coalition and further reducing the possibility of corrupted samples.
Fear of crime will be the dependent variable and will indicate the level of felt across the genders in varying situations. The gender of respondent is the independent variable which is being assessed as to whether it relates to the fear of crime and in addition to gender, age [1] and time of day will also be independent variables. All these variables will be determined by the survey responses and the dependent variable will be tested for statistical independence.
Analytic Techniques
Summary of analysis completed
The data is presented in tabular format along with graphs and charts. All descriptive statistics is calculated for each variable on interval or ratio scale. Further, data is analysed using statistical techniques such as chi-square test, one- way ANOVA followed by POST HOC tests, Z-test for comparing mean etc. Level of significance is fixed at 5%. All p-value less than 0.05 will be treated as significant.
Dealing with missing data
Missing data is almost part of every research. In this study, missing data is limited to a small number of subjects. Hence we opted a list-wise deletion of subjects. Only the subjects with missing data will be eliminated from the study. That is if a subject is missing data on any of the variables used in the analysis, it is completed eliminated.
Dealing with outliers, errors etc.
Dealing with outliers and errors is very difficult. In this study, we found very less outliers and errors. All subjects with outliers or errors are excluded from the study. Since errors are at random, it makes no much effect on study, if we remove them from the study.
Any other problems in completing the analysis (e.g. violations of requirements)
Before conducting all parametric tests, all the necessary required conditions are checked and further analysis is done. For parametric tests, normality assumption is checked. All data is found to be approximated normally distributed.
Age-wise distribution
Gender
Frequency
Percent
Male
162
45.6
Female
193
54.4
Total
355
100.0
Findings
Question one or Hypothesis One: Does fear of crime differ by gender?
Table
gender * Afraid group Cross tabulation
Afraid Score
Total
Afraid Score less than 4
Afraid score between 4-6
Afraid Score above 6
gender
Male
Count
83
61
16
160
% of Total
23.5%
17.3%
4.5%
45.3%
Female
Count
53
76
64
193
% of Total
15.0%
21.5%
18.1%
54.7%
Total
Count
136
137
80
353
% of Total
38.5%
38.8%
22.7%
100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Value
df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square
34.275a
2
.000
Likelihood Ratio
36.068
2
.000
Linear-by-Linear Association
33.650
1
.000
N of Valid Cases
353
Conclusion: Parsons Chi-square is found to be 34.275 with p-value < 0.05; hence there is significant association between afraid score and gender. Afraid score is significantly high in females as compared to males.
Respondent's Perceived Level of Unsafety While at Home During the Day and Gender
gender * safe day Cross tabulation
safe day
Total
Very Unsafe
Unsafe
Neither safe nor unsafe
Safe
Very safe
Never home alone during the day
gender
Male
Count
1
3
4
35
111
1
155
% of Total
.3%
.9%
1.2%
10%
32.3%
.3%
451%
Female
Count
3
7
24
72
83
0
189
% of Total
.9%
2.0%
7.0%
20%
24.1%
.0%
55%
Total
Count
4
10
28
107
194
1
344
% of Total
1.2%
2.9%
8.1%
31%
56.4%
.3%
100%
Chi-Square Tests
Value
df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square
31.670a
5
.000
Likelihood Ratio
33.680
5
.000
Linear-by-Linear Association
24.327
1
.000
N of Valid Cases
344
Conclusion:
Parsons Chi-square is found to be 31.670 with p-value < 0.05; hence there is significant association between safety during day and gender. Males feel more safety at home during day as compared to females.
Question Two or Hypothesis Two: Are older women more fearful than younger women? Graph
age * Fear Group Cross tabulation
Fear Group
Total
Fear Score less than 3
Fear Score between 4 -6
Fear Score above 6
age
Age Group 18 -24
Count
12
14
14
40
% of Total
6.3%
7.3%
7.3%
20.8%
Age Group 25-34
Count
15
30
13
58
% of Total
7.8%
15.6%
6.8%
30.2%
Age Group 34-44
Count
13
14
11
38
% of Total
7.3%
5.7%
19.8%
Age Group 45-54
Count
8
9
10
27
% of Total
4.7%
5.2%
14.1%
Age Group 55-64
Count
6
6
4
16
% of Total
3.1%
6.8%
2.1%
8.3%
Age group 65 and over
Count
2
5
6
13
% of Total
1.0%
4.2%
3.1%
6.8%
Total
Count
56
78
6
192
% of Total
29.2%
40.6%
30.2%
100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Value
df
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square
7.544a
10
.673
Likelihood Ratio
7.512
10
.676
Linear-by-Linear Association
.284
1
.594
N of Valid Cases
192
Conclusion: Parsons Chi-square is found to be 7.544 with p-value > 0.05; hence there is no significant association between fear and age group. Hence we can conclude that, age is not associated with fear.
Average Score of Female Respondent's Fear of Crime and Age e.g. Table or graph, ANOVA Test
Descriptive (Fear)
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
Age Group 18 -24
40
5.1162
2.44853
4.3332
5.8993
Age Group 25-34
58
4.3498
1.91327
3.8468
4.8529
Age Group 34-44
38
4.3447
2.24761
3.6060
5.0835
Age Group 45-54
27
4.8770
2.42666
3.9171
5.8370
Age Group 55-64
16
4.6325
2.57747
3.2591
6.0059
Age group 65 and over
13
6.0692
2.60333
4.4961
7.6424
Total
192
4.7226
2.29671
4.3957
5.0495
ANOVA
fear2
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Between Groups
44.032
5
8.806
1.700
.137
Within Groups
963.469
186
5.180
Total
1007.500
191
Conclusion: there is no significant difference in fear score among various age groups. F= 1.70, p > 0.05, hence we can conclude that the fear score is almost same among persons of all age groups.
Female Respondent's Received Level of Unsafety While at Home During the Day and Age
e.g. Table or graph, ANOVA Test
Descriptive (safe day)
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
Age Group 18 -24
39
4.3846
.84652
.13555
4.1102
4.6590
Age Group 25-34
57
4.2456
.66227
.08772
4.0699
4.4213
Age Group 34-44
37
4.0000
1.20185
.19758
3.5993
4.4007
Age Group 45-54
26
4.3846
.75243
.14756
4.0807
4.6885
Age Group 55-64
16
4.0625
1.06262
.26566
3.4963
4.6287
Age group 65 and over
13
3.6923
1.03155
.28610
3.0689
4.3157
Total
188
4.1915
.91074
.06642
4.0605
4.3225
ANOVA
safe day
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Between Groups
7.454
5
1.491
1.838
.108
Within Groups
147.653
182
.811
Total
155.106
187
Conclusion: there is no significant difference in safe day score among various age groups. F= 7.454, p > 0.05, there is no significant difference between feeling safety during day score and age.
Female Respondent's Perceived Level of Unsafety While At Home Alone After Dark and Age
e.g. Table or graph, ANOVA Test
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
Age Group 18 -24
34
9.1765
2.25637
1.3036
17.0493
Age Group 25-34
46
7.9130
1.94569
2.1351
13.6910
Age Group 34-44
33
3.5758
1.25076
3.1323
4.0193
Age Group 45-54
25
1.1760
2.59700
1.0401
22.4799
Age Group 55-64
16
1.5125
3.23787
-2.1284
32.3784
Age group 65 and over
11
2.6364
.92442
2.0153
3.2574
Total
165
8.2364
2.035861
5.1069
11.3658
ANOVA
safenite
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Between Groups
2166.272
5
433.254
1.047
.392
Within Groups
65807.509
159
413.884
Total
67973.782
164
Conclusion: there is no significant difference in safe night score among various age groups. F= 1.047, p > 0.05, there is no significant difference between feeling safety during night score and age.
Question Three or Hypothesis Three:
Average Score of Female Respondent's Fear of Crime and Live Alone E.g. Table or graph, z-test of mean differences
Descriptive (Fear)
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
Live Alone
121
4.6625
2.32150
4.2446
5.0803
Don't live alone
17
6.1000
2.13131
5.0042
7.1958
Total
138
4.8396
2.34008
4.4457
5.2335
ANOVA
fear2
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Between Groups
30.802
1
30.802
5.823
.017
Within Groups
719.406
136
5.290
Total
750.208
137
Conclusion: there is significant difference in fear score women who live alone and don't live alone at home. F= 5.823, p < 0.05, there is significant difference between feeling safety during night score and age. Fear score is significantly high in women who don't line alone.
Female Respondent's Received Level of Unsafety While at Home Alone During the Day and Lives Alone E.g. Table or graph, z-test of mean differences Female Respondent's Received Level of Unsafety While a Home Alone After Dark and Lives Alone
E.g. Table or graph, z-test of mean differences
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
safe day
Live Alone
119
4.1176
.91296
3.9519
4.2834
Don't live alone
16
3.6875
1.07819
3.1130
4.2620
Total
135
4.0667
.93999
3.9067
4.2267
safenite
Live Alone
102
5.5000
13.19747
2.9078
8.0922
Don't live alone
14
2.1429
.77033
1.6981
2.5876
Total
116
5.0948
12.41946
2.8107
7.3789
ANOVA
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
safe day
Between Groups
2.610
1
2.610
2.997
.086
Within Groups
115.790
133
.871
Total
118.400
134
safenite
Between Groups
138.743
1
138.743
.899
.345
Within Groups
17599.214
114
154.379
Total
17737.957
115
Conclusion:
There is no significant difference in fear score of women who live alone and don't live alone at home during day. F= 2.997, p > 0.05, there is significant difference between feeling safety during day score and living alone status.
There is no significant difference in fear score of women who live alone and don't live alone at home during day. F= 2.997, p > 0.05, there is significant difference between feeling safety during day score and living alone status.
Discussion/Conclusion
Summary of Results: how did you answer each question/hypothesis?
Each hypothesis is tested for rejection with appropriate test of significance. The level of significance is set at 5%. All p-values greater than 0.05 will be treated as insignificant and the null hypothesis will be accepted.
Implications of findings for theoretical explanations
In this, out of 355 respondents, 162 (45.4%) are males and 193 (55.6%) are females. This study clearly shows that there is significant association between gender and fear of crime (p < 0.05). Females were found to have more fear of crime as compared to males. Respondent's Perceived Level of Unsafety While at Home During the Day and Gender are significantly associated. (p < 0.05). This indicates that women feel more unsafe at home as compared to men during day. No association found between fear and womens age (p-value > 0.05). The level of fear is almost equal among all age groups in women. No significant difference was found in the average score of fear between different age groups of women (p-value > 0.05). There is no significant difference in safe night score among various age groups in women (p-value > 0.05). There is significant difference in fear score among women who live alone and don't live alone at home (p < 0.05). There is significant difference between feeling safety during night score and age. Fear score is significantly high in women who don't live alone.
Limitations of the Research
There are limitations to this study. Firstly the sample size only pertains to only one country and considering all are local population, the data does not give diversity of opinion. Australia is a country where population has settled form wide range of countries and their cultural differences have not been considered.
The survey is conducted only in English and non English speaking women must be unable to report their experiences of victimization. As a result, these indicators lack sufficient data regarding the prevalence of violence against immigrant women as well as some groups of Aboriginal women.
Majority of countries are carving out funds for preventing violence against women. The real effect is yet to be seen. Future research is required to look into use of these funds and any improvement the funds could generate.
Moreover, due to the different sources of data used in this document, comparisons over time and between jurisdictions have been done. Moreover, quantitative data may have serious limitations. They cannot portray the reality of violence in the lives of individual women - the fear such violence instills and the trauma it causes. It is the answers of women themselves that is necessary to provide the context and texture of that reality. Quantitative data always need to be complemented by qualitative data to give an accurate and complete picture of violence against women.
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The sample sizes do not permit the disaggregation of data on violence against immigrant and refugee women, women of color, women with disabilities, teenage women and girls, older women, women living in poverty, homeless women, women in rural and remote communities and bisexual women. In the absence of sufficient data on women in all their diversity, these indicators cannot provide a complete profile of the experiences of all women in Australia or their experiences of violence through their lifecycles.
It was also noted that there is a lack of national data on the individual economic costs of violence against women including costs of the loss of financial supports, legal services, housing, mental and physical health etc.
The study has not assumed the percentage of people not reporting crime because of loss of their self reputation. In certain areas, such as violence against women, methodological shortcomings and lack of reporting, or under-reporting, led to inaccurate data collection, and such unreliable or mislea
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