Based on the methodological orientation, the data has been gathered by applying the mixed method approach: questionnaires (quantitative), interviews and textual analysis (qualitative). As the study deal with the sensitive issue of the alignment, the use of mixed method approach will help the researcher to produce quantifiable data and at the same time enable her to validate the research with qualitative data. To ensure the suitability and to counter any difficulties involved in data collection tools, a pilot study has been carried out. Using SPSS a reliability test, Cronbach’s alpha test was applied. The cronbach’s alpha for the pilot study were 0.92. During the pilot study, on the recommendation of experts and further consideration the four point likert scale for two questionnaires was changed to five points.
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So far, the researcher has completed the collection of empirical data in Pakistan. The process of the collection of data had been quite enlightening for the researcher. The response from the teachers at secondary SSC and higher secondary HSSC had been quite encouraging. The collection of data took five months, due to the security situation in Pakistan. The researcher had to go through a process of security checks at almost every school and college. However, she accomplished her target and collected the data from English teachers at SSC and HSSC level. The researcher has also done the content analysis of the textbook. Different themes emerged in the analysis of the textbooks. This analysis is subjective in nature and shows the clear stand point of the researcher. In the later stage of the analysis, the findings of the content analysis will be incorporated with findings of questionnaires and interviews to make the whole scenario clear.
A detailed time line has been set out to show, what has been done and what has to be done in the researcher’s pursuits towards a PhD.
Signed by Candidate Print Name Saira Farooq Shah Date
Transfer Document Report
An Inquiry into the Alignment between the ‘Pillars of Quality’ (Aly, 2007:17). i.e. Curriculum and Textbooks used to teach English Language at the Secondary level in Pakistan.
Aims:
The focus of this research is, to examine the alignment between the English Language Textbooks and the proscribed curriculum at the secondary level in Pakistan. Accordingly, the research has several related aims;
To explore the process by which the English Language Curriculum is implemented at secondary level in Pakistan.
To critically review English Language textbooks used at secondary level in Pakistan in order to uncover their strengths and weaknesses in terms of meeting the aims of the curriculum.
To analyse the English Language textbooks to assess the inclusion of the ethical and social development (or social cohesion) explicit in the national curriculum of Pakistan.
To make a contribution to the existing body of research into the alignment of curriculum delivery methods (textbooks) and the curriculum aims.
Context:
Language Educational Policy in Pakistan:
English has acquired the status of the universal language in the recent years. The importance of English is being emphasized in different newspapers and books by various authors. Crystal (2003, p.1) rightly points out ,
” From Bengal to Belize and Las Vegas to Lahore, the language of the scepted isle is rapidly becoming the first global lingua franca. “
Economic and social well being, advancement in science and technology has made people dependent on English around the world. Crystal (2003, Pg.30) reveals the fact in the following words,
“English has penetrated deeply into the international domains of political life, business, safety, communication, entertainment, the media and education.”
Another point of view has described English as a “Trojan horse” (Cooke, 1988 cited in Pennycook, 1995 p.39). This reflects that when English is used as a lingua franca the language user start to think in the manner positioned by that language and they are hooked on that culture and perhaps change their original views. The use of this metaphor implies that the perceptions and culture of English take root in the environment and acculturation takes place. Another comment on the status of English as a lingua franca comes from Phillipson(2001). According to him,
“English being referred to as lingua franca conceal the fact that the use of English serves the interest of much better than others. The concept includes some and excludes some”(p.188)
The notion was asserted by Pennycook (1995) that English is the
“gate keeper to the positions of prestige in society”(p.40).
An important question which arises is that of, for whom English is serving as a gate keeper. Phillipson (2001) explained this in that the English speaking Population which is 10-20% of the world’s population consumes 80% of the resources and is getting richer, whereas, the rest are impoverished. Bearing this standpoint in mind, the place of English in the context of Pakistan is important to analyse. The analysis can give a clear picture about the use of English and the benefits derived from its expansion.
The role of English in Pakistan is to be studied in the light of the fact that English has spread a world language and also as a lingua franca beyond as, “any lingua franca of the past” (Wright, 2004 p.136). English is seen as a means of attaining modernisation, of the nation as a whole (Rahman, 2002; Haque, 1993; Shamim, 2007). In Pakistan, improving the competency in English is seen as part of improving the standard of education as a whole (Shamim, 2008). Since independence, Pakistan has seen many changes in the language policies during the initial years Urdu was approved as a medium of instruction but English was not replaced by Urdu in the private schools. As a result, two different systems of education took firm roots in Pakistan resulting in creating a division in the people as asserted by Shamim (2008) that, this strengthened,
“the British Education policy of two streams of Education, English- and Urdu- medium continued with the same aims, that is, to create two classes of people- the ruling elite and the masses” ( Shamim, 2008 p.238).
The Minister of Education, Zubaida Jalal in 2004 emphasized the need for teaching English as
“an urgent public requirement” (Jalal, 2004 p.25).
This need was expressed with the
“aim to provide literacy in English to the masses for levelling social inequalities” (Shamim, 2008 p.239).
This inclination of the government was also manifested in the revised white paper on education:
“English should be made a compulsory subject, starting from class I, in all public schools. Such compulsory education of English should only start after suitably qualified teachers for English language are available to staff positions in all primary schools of the country to ensure that the benefit is assured to all the citizens and not just the elite” (Aly, 2007 p.54).
The recent educational policy presented in August 2009, also lays stress on the provision of opportunities for all to learn English in the following words,
“Develop a comprehensive plan of action for implementing the English language policy in the shortest possible time, paying particular attention to disadvantaged groups and lagging behind regions” (MoE, 2009 p.27).
The policy has taken onboard the recommendation of the white paper mentioned above and the policy provision is to use English as a medium of instruction for teaching Sciences and Mathematics from Grade 6 in all the public sector institutions.
English has been used by the elite class in Pakistan as, in Pennycook’s terms
“the gate keeper to positions of prestige” (Pennycook, 1995 p.55) (i am using it again to show the implications of it in the scenario in pakistan)you used this quote above
The concept of inclusion and equity in the new education policy is suppose to spread the benefits of English language to the masses so that they can also compete with the elite class for the positions and high ranks and take part in the development of the country. The discussion above shows that the governments of Pakistan have been introducing the policy of spreading the benefits of English to masses. The following section throws light on the governmental efforts and commitment to promote education.
Education and Political commitment:
Education performs a vital role in nation building. The attention paid to the education sector by any government shows the level of commitment of that government to its people. Pakistan is a developing country and education is one of the many challenges the government of Pakistan faces. The Constitution of Pakistan has placed the responsibility of basic education on the state as this obligation is reflected in the Principles of Policy in Article 37, (GoP, 1973). Despite constitutional and policy commitments to promote literacy and education, for most of the past six decades, budget allocation for education and public spending have been very nominal. Educational funding by the Government of Pakistan has not increased from an average of 2% of GNP over the past ten years while the recommended allocation for developing countries is about 4 %(GoP, 2008 p.157). The economic survey states the reason for allocating less budget in the following words.
“It is on the lower side in accordance to its requirement given the importance of the sector but seems appropriate in terms of current financial situation of the economy”(GoP, 2008 p.157)
The outcome of this situation is that the,
“Enrolment in government schools continues to fall due to out-dated curriculum and text books, damaged buildings and absent teachers” (Qureshi,2003 p.22).
Literacy rate has been improving even though at a very slow pace, a little over 0.7 percent per annum over the last decade with considerable urban-rural and provincial differences. Of the over 163 million population, over 72 million are illiterate, 31% males and 56% females (GoP,2008). the economic survey of Pakistan 2008-09 says,
“According to Pakistan Social and Living Measurement (PSLM) Survey (2007-08), the overall literacy rate (age 10 years and above) is 56% (69% for male and 44% for female) in 2007-08 compared to 55% (67% for male and 42% for female) in 2006-07. Literacy remains higher in urban areas (71%) than in rural areas (49%) and more in men (69%) compared to women (44%).” (p.158)
If we add the 69% male and 44% female they give the total of 113 which should be 100 so is the case with rest of the figures. This shows a wide discrimination in the gender wise ratio of education. As stated in the RD1PA different policies and plans were made to address the issues of education and literacy in Pakistan. The brief summary of the plans and policies is as below.
The Governmental Policies: A Glance.
Policies and Plans
Important Issues Addressed
National Conference on Education Dec, 1947
Qualitative and quantitative expansion of education (AIOU.2007).
Commission of national Education 1959
Teaching of National Languages (GoP, 1959).
The National Education Policy 1970
Organization of curriculum committees and encouraging private publishers to publish textbooks (AIOU.2007).
The National Education Policy 1979
Revision of entire curricula with the reorganization of the textbook boards to ensure quality textbooks in time availability of the textbooks and the reasonable prices (AIOU.2007).
The National Education Policy 1992
Introduction of national ideology and social values (AIOU.2007).
The National Education Policy 1998-2010
Make Learning Rewarding and attractive. The introduction of Competitive textbooks (GoP, 1998).
The National Education Policy 2009
Objective driven and outcome based Curriculum, introduce competitive textbooks, launch a review process for textbook approval by the textbook boards, promote national cohesion by respecting each others faith and religion and cultural and ethnic diversity ,provide minorities with adequate facilities for their cultural and religious development, enabling them to participate effectively in the overall national effort.(MOE,2009 )
It is clearly evident that the focus of educational policies has remained the curriculum as delivered by the textbooks. Different provisions were made in all the policies to make the use of textbooks effective. A White Paper was published by the Ministry of Education in Feb, 2007 (written by Aly)in the situational analysis it was clearly stated that ,
“Textbook development appears to be the only activity flowing from curriculum even the assessments are based on these textbooks. (Aly, 2007 p.17)”
Especially in the developing countries, the textbooks are considered as the sole source of information to accomplish objectives and aims of curriculum. For the majority of the educators the textbooks are the only authentic material to rely on, while the students are laden with a big bag full of textbooks approved by the government to study.
To cite Altbach & Kelly (1988),
“Texts constitute the base of school knowledge, particularly in Third World countries where there is a chronic shortage of qualified teachers.” (p.3)
An important development in the new educational policy of 2009(MOE, 2009) is the concept of inclusion and equity which were not emphasized in any previous policy. Deliberate efforts to mould the minds of youth through education especially through textbooks, started in early 1980 in Pakistan with the political agenda of Zia-Ul-Haq in the name of Islamization of the state (Nayyar, 2003). The insensitivity towards other faiths not only causes unrest and a sense of inferiority among the students belonging to other religions but also in the Muslim students belonging to other sects. Agitation was seen between 2000-2005, in the Northern Areas of Pakistan which are Shia (a religious sect in Islam) dominated. The ‘textbook controversy’ took hundred lives and constant curfew paralyzed the whole area. The Shia Muslims were not ready to accept the books written by Sunni (a religious sect in Islam) Scholars as they only depicted one perspective of Islam i.e. the Sunni Islam (Ali, 2008). Insensitivity and discrimination promoted in textbooks has also been observed in other countries. In Indonesia, for example, textbooks on the English Language give a single picture of the Javanese (a special group in Indonesia). The textbooks for Dalits in India and Buraku in Japan also tell the same stories of insensitivities towards the minorities (Plantilla, 2005).
The textbooks of Pakistan according to Nayyar (2003) only highlights the Muslim figures, rituals, doctrines and values irrespective of the rest of the population. Masood & Usmani (2007) in their report on textbooks in Pakistan explored that the content of the textbooks is discriminatory and in their words it results to,
“make Muslims feel superior tear at the very fabric of society we need to build and preserve, rather than destroy.”
The current English curriculum for secondary school level in Pakistan (2006) says that,
“All students will develop ethical and social attributes and values relevant in a multicultural, civilized society…embedded in the chosen themes and topics of the reading texts” (MOE, 2006p. 119).
Curriculum Formulation and the use of Textbooks:
The curriculum for grades 1-12 is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education curriculum wing, Islamabad. In each province there is a curriculum Bureau or Curriculum Research and Development Centre (CRDC) that provides academic support to the ministry of Education Islamabad. Curriculum formulation is a lengthy process, as the ministry has to take expert opinions from all regions of the country. The curriculum draft is finalized by national Curriculum Review Committee, Islamabad. Thus uniform curriculum of each subject is followed all over the country.
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The process above indicates complete governmental control and is thus influenced by the politics. Watson and Aubusson 1999 (cited in Halali,et.al. 2007) studied curriculum implementation in Pakistan and found that there has been authoritarian system in the curriculum and development process. Curriculum development is an ideologically motivated practice in Pakistan, which often results in heated political debates in the country (Nayyar & Salim, 2003) for instance, In 2003, when major curriculum changes from the ministry of education were introduced by the Ministry of Education, Islamabad Pakistan. The religious parties were up in arms, for example, they were against the removal of the Quranic references from Biology textbooks (Sarwar, 2004). The conference on, “Protecting Ideology of Pakistan” clearly warned the government against the implementation of ‘US Agenda’ by changing the curricula (PPI, 2004). Few changes made in English textbook class 10 were also deleted as it caused unrest among the people. The republication of these textbooks cost the govt at least one billion Rupees (Gillani, 2004).
Subsequently, the developed national curriculum is implemented by the provincial governments. The Textbook Boards established in the country, develop textbooks which follow the national curriculum. All the state schools in the country are expected to use textbooks which are according to the national curriculum and which have been developed by the respective Textbook Boards. The textbooks printed are submitted to the Curriculum Wing of the Federal Ministry of Education which make sure that the textbooks are aligned with the national curriculum. However, in the education policy1998-2010 as well as the education policy 2009, the concept of competitive textbooks has been emphasized (MOE, 1998; MOE, 2009).
Textbooks are the most important element in any attempt of the educational reform in Pakistan because,
“textbooks are the sole reading material that the students will have access to and which the teachers will use as an instructional resource.(Halali. et.al. 2007)”
Textbook are at the heart of educational enterprise as they offer students, “a rich array of new potentially interesting facts and open the door to a world of fantastic experience” (Chambliss & Calfee 1998, p.7). The dominance of textbooks, especially in the context of developing countries has been reiterated and highlighted by various writers. Maxwell, 1985 for example identifies their role as the organizing centres for instructional programme and as the most dominant element in classrooms aside from teachers, students and physical space. (Cited in Mohammad & Kumari 2007, p.3)
The organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the World Bank and UNESCO also recognize the central importance and role of textbooks in the context of developing countries. The World Bank for example suggests that reforms be initiated in relation to textbooks in developing countries; textbooks being , “a critical part of education as necessary as classroom itself, as indispensable as the classroom teacher.”(DeGuzman, 2000 cited in Oakes & Saunders, 2004)
The research in the area of education in Pakistan by Mohammed (1994; cited in Mohammad & Kumari, 2007) indicated that teachers mostly teach to textbook content. He also considered such an approach typically resulting in poor academic performance of Pakistani students However, Fuller & Clark (1994; cited in Oakes & Saunders, 2004) identified a positive link between student achievement and the role of textbooks.
To summarize the discussion on the system and policy of education in Pakistan. English is considered very important and the Govt of Pakistan through the language policy wants to transfer the benefits of English to masses, so that they can also raise their standard of living by taking part in the activities which were previously only open to the elite. English is taught as a compulsory subject and in the state owned and many private schools government approved textbooks are used as the students have to appear in the examinations administered by the 26 boards of intermediate and secondary education and these boards follow the national curriculum. So, a majority of the population of Pakistan study the curriculum and textbooks approved by the Ministry of Education. Therefore, by studying the role of the textbook and its alignment with the national curriculum it is intended to scrutinize (or highlight) that how the objectives of the curriculum are materialized through the medium of textbooks.
Literature review:
Considering the above context, it is clearly evident that the focus of educational policies in Pakistan has remained the curriculum and the textbooks. Different provisions were made in all the policies to make the use of textbooks effective. A White Paper was published by the Ministry of Education in Feb, 2007 where curriculum and textbooks were described as the, “pillars of quality” (Aly, 2007 p.17). Moreover, the new policy has also stressed the need to make English language accessible to the masses through the process of making English language compulsory and to promote social cohesion and inclusion of the deprived sector which has been excluded on the basis of religion, class or creed. As stated in the educational policy 2009,
“To promote national cohesion by respecting each others faith and religion and cultural and ethnic diversity.” (MOE, 2009 p.17-18)
Therefore, it is important to see the alignment between the curriculum and the textbooks.
Alignment:
Alignment has several different interpretations in education. La Marca.et.al(2000) identify that the Webster Dictionary defines alignment as,
“to align “as “to bring into a straight line; to bring parts or components into proper coordination; to bring into agreement, close cooperation” (p.1)
In context of classroom teaching, alignment signifies the conformity between the teachers’ objectives, classroom activities or learning experiences and the assessment. On a broader level, curricular alignment refers to the extent to which the curriculum across the different grades is constructed and is in conformity with what is learned in earlier grades (Tyler, 1949). Alignment, as described above looks at
“the degree to which expectations[i.e., standards] and assessments are in agreement and serve in conjunction with one another to guide the system toward students learning what they are expected to know to do” (Webb, 1997 p.4).
Ideally, students’ assessment should be derived from what is expected of them as mentioned in the curricula, as well as from what is being taught to them by their teachers. Even though, not everything from the curricula can be assessed, alignment research can throw light on the degree of curriculum covered in assessments. The theory which forms the basis of the alignment research is that a reliable message from all parts of the educational setup i.e. the curriculum (state standards) content taught and assessment will end up in methodical, standard-based reform (Smith & O’Day, 1991). This type of consistent message has been explained by Porter (2002) in the following words:
“An instructional system is to be driven by content standards, which are translated into assessments, curriculum materials, and professional development, which are all, in turn, tightly aligned to the content standards. The hypothesis is that a coherent message of desired content will influence teachers’ decisions about what to teach, and teachers’ decisions, in turn, will translate into their instructional practice and ultimately into student learning of the desired content.” (p.5)
So, alignment research can demonstrate the link between assessment, curriculum and the learning experience, also referred to as instruction. If all the components are aligned or are delivering a consistent message about teaching and testing, it will have a positive result on student achievement. There has been very little research done on the implication of the alignment research in the classroom setting (Roach. et.al. 2008). Adding to the scenario, it is significant to mention that , all the alignment research has been conducted in the context of developed countries and their policies, for example, No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation, bound the states in the USA to illustrate the alignment between the testing tools and the state standards (Johnson, 2005; Leffler et.al. 2005). An alignment study in the context of a developing country has the potential to help the stake holders that are policy makers, textbook writers, teachers and the assessment developers to refine the curriculum textbooks and assessment to help and support each other in the drive for better student achievement.
Curriculum
Many definitions of curriculum have been provided by different educationists, a few educationists define curriculum as the activities planned by the school (J.F Kerr, 1968; Saylor and Alexander 1954). There are others which find this definition incomplete and they point out an important aspect of ‘hidden curriculum’ (Kelly, 2004; Bernett, 1977 cited in AIOU Pakistan, 2007). Taylor, 1949; Taba Hilda, 1962; Wheeler, 1971; Walker, 1971; Skilbeck, 1976 all gave different models to define and construct curriculum.
After going through different views of curriculum it is obvious that there is no one comprehensive definition of curriculum and to search for one might not be worthwhile. As noted by Pinar.et.al (1995, p26),
“the multiplication of definitions is not an urgent problem to be solved. It is rather, a state of affairs to be acknowledged. In the field comprised of various and autonomous discourses, it is inevitable.”(Cited in Colin J Marsh 1999, p.119)
Jackson (1992) holds the opinion that definitional shifts are evident over past decades. Thus, it might be argued that these shifts represent ‘conceptual progresses’ in the words of Tanner and Tanner. (1980, p.41) While defining the curriculum in Pakistan the objective approach is followed. The following flow chart from the curriculum document explains the process (See MOE, National Curriculum, 2006, p.3).
Identifying competencies & selecting competencies
Developing Learning Standards
Defining benchmarks at developmental level
Student learning outcomes at each grade levelNational Curriculum for English Language grades 1-12
Textbooks
Education in many countries is going through reforms in the curriculum. For example, India (Srivastava, 2005) In many countries when curriculum reforms are in process the most influenced sector is the textbook. For example, In Malaysia the Curriculum development Centre revised the English curriculum in 2002 and textbooks according to the new curriculum were published in 2003(Mustapha,2008). In Pakistan, the textbooks are,
“the widely used tool for curriculum interpretation and implementation (Mahmood.et.al, 2009 p.1)”.
This has been asserted by Nemati 2009 in the following words,
“One way to amend and improve a curriculum is to improve the textbooks and the materials employed in the program. (Nemati 2009, p 98)”
Textbooks play a central role in the interpretation of the curriculum as they are the primary realization of the syllabus that the teacher uses. The use of textbooks to teach English remains strong. Garinger(2002),explains this in the following words.
“Even with the development of new technologies that allow for higher quality teacher-generated material, demand for textbooks continues to grow” (p, 1).
Textbooks have a huge control over what is being taught at the school level. Teachers depend on the textbooks to impart the fundamental concepts of the content. To cite John,
“a majority of teachers use textbooks as their principal curriculum guide and source of lessons(2001, p.32)”.
Textbooks in Pakistan are the core source of information on a particular field of knowledge, they are also designed to reflect the values and aims of the nation. They are made to teach what the administration or the government want pupils to study. It can also be interpreted in the following words that the textbooks,
“tell children what their elders want them to know (Kalmus, 2004, p.13)”.
There has been a difference between the situations in the developed and developing countries. In some countries the textbooks are only used as resource material and the teachers are provided with other resources to compliment the textbooks, for example in the Canadian education system
“……a textbook is always accompanied by other materials such as, CD’s cassettes, tests and a teacher’s guide. (Fredriksson & Olsson, 2006 p.10)”.
Contrary to this, the situation in the developing countries is entirely different. Policy recommendations of the World bank for the developing countries stresses the supply of the textbooks
” (with a) student-textbook ratio of at least 2:1 for each subject taught… countries should focus on providing their school with good (pedagogically sound, culturally relevant, and physically durable) textbooks and on encouraging teachers to use them. (Lockheed & Verspoor, 1991, p.57 cited in Crossley & Murby, 1994 html doc no page specified )”
In the context of Pakistan the situation has not changed over the past two decades, despite global developments in web based materials. The government of Pakistan in the green paper published in 2006 state the situation that,
“the textbook is the only available learning material in most schools. Additional materials like teaching aids, supplementary reading materials and school libraries are virtually non-existent (p.2)”.
In Pakistan, the textbooks are developed in the light of national curriculum and are evaluated afterwards to see the alignment between the textbooks and the curriculum. The evaluation of the textbook is one of the most important tasks of the curriculum wing. The curriculum wing of the Ministry of Education is authorized to approve or withdraw any textual material for the classes up to XII (GoP, 1976). An approved textbook turns into the curriculum in the class room (Lame, 1991). Skierso (1991) found that,
” most of teachers tend to follow the text’s sequence, methodology, pacing and vocabulary to the letter” (p.432).
In Pakistan research in the field of education has thrown light on the different issues Chughtai (1990), Mansoor (1993) and Shirani (1995) showed that researchers in the English language learning have not explored the role of English language textbooks as the main tool in the delivery of curriculum. Their main focus has been on other areas for example, the overcrowded class rooms, orthodox teaching methods and the competency of English language teachers. As stated above, textbooks serve as a centre of educational quality and reform. Abbas (1993) reported on several attempts that have been made to update Pakistani textbooks, what is missing is study of the interaction between textbooks and how teachers make use of this resource. Further studies by Bano (2005) concluded that since teachers do not have access to national curriculum documents, provided only to textbook writers for their guidance, it is imperative that textbook writers ensure that the textbook reflects the aims and objectives of the national curriculum.
After the whole discussion about the importance of textbooks in meeting the curriculum aims in the context of Pakistan, a study of alignment becomes imperative. The researcher has been investigati
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