Double Consciousness in African-American Literature

Double consciousness throughout the history of African American Literature

On a Saturday morning, I found myself walking to a Dominican hair salon with my mother. As we entered the glass doors, we were overwhelmed with walls that were covered in posters of fair skinned women with straight hair and blue eyes. After each appointment, I became accustomed to seeing women that did not look like me. When the hairdresser saw my mother’s hair, she assured her that she was going to fix her “pelo malo” (bad hair). This normalized term is deeply rooted in society’s expectation for women to look presentable at all times. In many cases, women in the Dominican Republic were inhibited from receiving an education because their “unkempt” hair is a reminder of their indigenous ancestry and was enough reason to be sent home. This phrase is not simply about making one’s hair straight, it is about the constant need to oppress one’s roots and cultural identity. The term did not create feelings of aversion, instead, I became used to hearing it. When it was my turn to have my hair straightened, I was welcomed differently, partly because my skin tone resembled people with fairer skin and my hair was soft. Despite having gone to the salon every week, I secretly detested having my hair straightened because my scalp would be burned from the heat used. As I scanned the room for reassurance from my mother, my vision was blinded from the fumes coming out of the blow dryers. As my mother and I walked home with our hair blowing in the wind, instead of saying that I liked my hair, I asked my mom, “why do we straighten our hair all the time?” Before responding, my mother nervously laughed and told me that it looks “bonito” (pretty). Instead of feeling satisfied with her response, I felt perplexed because I was only considered beautiful with straight hair. When the following week came to straighten my hair, I told my mom that I did not want to go because I was not feeling well. But in reality, I no longer wanted to endure pain and I wanted to learn to accept my hair for what it was. Because of the habitual process of straightening my hair, I never knew that I had curly hair. The act of wearing my hair naturally, gave me a new lens, also known as double consciousness that gave me the ability to understand how I was perceived.

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The idea of the double consciousness was brought into existence in 1903 by William Edward Burghardt Du Bois, also known as W.E.B. Du Bois, who altered the way in which African-Americans were viewed in American society. One of his influential pieces is commonly known as The Souls of Black Folk, in which he discusses the pressures that black people face when trying to present themselves in America. In America, Du Bois argued that African-Americans have a “double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others, feels his two-ness, —an American, a Negro” (689). He argues that the concept of double consciousness is problematic for African-Americans who are trying to merge their African and American culture. However, for many African-Americans, the use of their double consciousness can be a burden to their psyche because when they try to assimilate into society, they are reminded that they are “different”. Although this idea was introduced during the early 1900s, the use of double consciousness is relevant throughout history.

The idea of the double consciousness is relevant in Frederick Douglass’s life who was able to successfully shed light on the tactics that slave masters used to perpetuate a system of institutionalized racism that directly benefited them. In his 1845 autobiography, the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, he documents the physical abuse and psychological trauma that slaves were forced to endure. As a way of perpetuating slavery, slave masters heavily relied on the ignorance of slaves in hopes of being to able to advance financially. By beginning his narrative with the awareness that his master’s wanted him to remain ignorant, he demonstrates how he overcomes his journey towards freedom. Douglass reveals that “by far the larger part of the slaves know as little of their ages as horses know of theirs, and it is the wish of most masters within my knowledge to keep their slaves thus ignorant” (337). By revealing the extensive lengths that slave masters took to keep slaves from accessing basic information, Douglass acknowledges that his master is threatened by the slaves’ ability to gain knowledge. This idea is supported when his master, Mr. Alud reminds his wife the dangers of teaching slaves how to become literate. Mr. Alud would tell his wife, “if you teach that nigger how to read, there would be no keeping him. It would forever unfit him to be a slave” (351). Because Douglass initially lacks the double consciousness between a slave and an individual, he is unable to understand the power in knowledge, therefore he is trapped in the oppressive, violent system of slavery. However, when Mr. Alud verbally reveals the “dangers” of teaching a slave how to read, Douglass embodies a dual perspective that he is an individual and that he can gain knowledge. This gives him the ability to see how his master is of not just afraid of losing a major source of wealth but losing control over the slaves if they obtain individuality. The use of his double consciousness gives him the realization that knowledge can free him from the control of his master, but as well as the opportunity to free slaves across the country.

After years of slavery, Abraham Lincoln ratifies the 13th amendment, which grants slaves the label of free citizens. However, this label does solve the trauma that slaves experience, in fact, the label makes them physically free, but mentally enslaved. Booker T. Washington is a victim of slavery who provides readers with a different perspective on how older slaves viewed their masters. In his autobiography, Up From Slavery, he discusses the relationship older slaves have with their masters. Instead of holding “feelings of bitterness against the whites…there are many instances of Negroes tenderly caring for their former masters and mistresses who have become poor and dependent since the war” (554). Despite the fact the slaves were free, older slaves were often in a perplexed state because their identities were formed by their masters and they became dependent on their masters. The mutual dependence between the older slaves and their masters left them mentally enslaved because of the psychological trauma that they experienced for so long. In comparison to younger slaves, they were able to adapt to the new freedom that they were given because their minds were still malleable. Due to the lifelong effects of slavery, older slaves were unable to envision life after slavery. As a result, the older slaves could not construct a double consciousness that would allow them to recognize themselves as an individual, rather than just a slave. The lack of double consciousness made it difficult for them to accept their African-American identity because to be considered an American meant freedom, a status that they struggled to hold after the termination of slavery.

Unlike the slaves who were unaware of their double consciousness, the main characters in Passing written by Nella Larsen use their double consciousness as a coping mechanism to survive in a segregated society. Passing takes place during the Harlem Renaissance, a movement that allowed artist and writers to define and control the black experience in predominantly western, white culture. During this time, many African-Americans from the South migrated to the North to find job opportunities and to escape the Jim Crow South. This is the case for Clare, who relies on passing as white because it is convenient in a predominantly white society, where whiteness is superior. As a way of seeking financial prosperity, Clare marries a white businessman to get “everything” she’s ever wanted. Like many biracial women, Clare is one of many who suppressed her roots with her white physical attributes to advance financially and socially. In fact, Clare goes to an extensive length to disassociates herself with her black identity by moving and cutting ties with her family. Whereas, Irene uses her double consciousness selectively and only when it is “necessary,” such as entering segregated white spaces. An example would be Irene using her physical white attributes to enter a white segregated space to receive a cold beverage to prevent her from fainting on the sidewalk, as a black man had. She is forced to use her whiteness for her advantage because compared to white segregated spaces, many black segregated spaces do not provide the same conditions and benefits. In addition, compared to Clare’s decision to only identify as white, Irene does not dissociate from her black identity because she is married to a black man and has black children. Thus, the use of one’s double consciousness for one’s benefit has become widely accepted because people were forced to primarily depend on their white identity for their own survival in this time period.

Another literary figure that impacted the Harlem Renaissance period is Langston Hughes, who is known for his ability to expose the experiences of African-American individuals. Through the life of an African-American college student, Hughes is able to depict some of the ways in which his double consciousness helped him understand the world. In his poem, “Theme for English B”, the college student compares himself to his fellow white peers because he attempts to find his place in society, as a black man from Harlem who attends a predominantly white school. Instead of concentrating on the obvious differences in their physical attributes and freedom, the narrator concludes that “You are white—yet a part of me, as I am a part of you. That’s American.” (1308) The narrator decides to focus on the fact that he and his fellow white classmates are American and that is what ties them together, as equal. He does not suppress his black roots, but he claims that it does not define who he is. The narrator is learning to use his double consciousness, as he celebrates his black roots and he identifies as American. Like the student, many African-American felt empowered by this movement because it gifted them with the power of freedom.

The concept of using one’s dual perspective is relevant in The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man, written by James Weldon Johnson who reveals the negative effects that a double consciousness can have on one’s identity. At the beginning of the novel, the unnamed narrator is unaware of his biracial identity because his mother does not want him to experience the same oppression that she did. However, his mother’s hope to protect his black identity is shattered when the unnamed narrator is told to “sit down for the present, and rise with the others” (798). This is a moment when the narrator realizes the superiority in being white, as his fellow white classmates are allowed to stand, and he is forced to sit back down because he is black. As a result, he undergoes an identity crisis that causes him to disassociate himself with his black identity and attempt to be primarily recognized as white. As he writes, “I had learned what their status was. And now I learned that theirs was mine. I had a very strong aversion to being classed with them” (800). Due to the narrator’s aversion towards his black classmates, he is able to feel an attitude of superiority with his white identity as a way to cope with the traumatic experience of racism. The readers are exposed to the internal tension that African-Americans face in a society that is built for white people. Because he realizes that he is no longer able to pass as white, he forced to “take his outlook on all things, not from the viewpoint of a citizen, or a man… but from the viewpoint of a colored man” (799). Since the narrator is forced to understand that he embodies a black identity through his double consciousness, he realizes that he is associated with negative stereotypes about his identity such as being unintelligent. The narrator selectively uses his biracial identity depending on his environment, in hopes of being able to advance financially in both majority black community and predominantly white society. By the end of the novel, the narrator decides to shield his children from their biracial identity; the same decision that his mother made to raise him. This decision was driven by the negative experiences that he underwent in a segregated society. The use of the narrator’s double consciousness gives him the ability to survive in a world that wants to kill African-Americans.

Another literary figure who uses the concept of double consciousness is Ralph Ellison, who is known for his book the Invisible Man, that deals with the complexities of holding a double consciousness in America. The unnamed narrator is not able to merge his African and American identity because white people do not want to consider him as an actual person. He begins the novel with a sarcastic tone by saying that “I am invisible, understand simply because people refuse to see me” (258). The narrator is invisible to white people and a society made for white people because he is black and does not receive the same rights, as a white person. The narrator struggles with his black identity because it grants him both advantages and white people to freely oppress him. The unnamed narrator uses his invisibility to his advantage, as he lives rent-free in a white segregated building because the white landlords are blind to his presence. However, during a confrontation with the blond man, the narrator comes to the conclusion that the blond man only insulted him because he could not see the narrator. The narrator is not aware of the white people’s blindness and his invisibility derives from racism, which makes it harder for the narrator to find his true identity. Through the use of an unnamed narrator, Ellison is able to empower black men to use their double consciousness to their advantage. During the nineteenth century, the idea of double consciousness is no longer about trying to merge two identities, but it has become about creating one’s identity. It is about not letting white people define their identity.

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In the past, the use of one’s double consciousness has been known to mentally enslaved individuals. However, this is not the case for the “The Man Who Lived Underground” by Richard Wright is about an accused manned named Fred Daniels, an African American man, who is wrongly accused of a murder he did not commit. In hopes of being able to escape the police chasing him, he stumbles upon an underground sewer, which he inhabits for a considerable amount of time, which allows him to see the world above ground through a veil. As Daniels discovers a new way of living underground, he embarks on a journey of self-discovery. Through the use of his double consciousness, Daniel becomes aware of his invisibility above ground. Instead of letting this reality ruin his self-esteem, Daniels raids jewels from a store because he wants to reclaim the attitude that the police officers had towards him. While talking the jewelry, he philosophically believed that “Maybe anything’s right, he mumbled. Yes, if the world as men has made it was right, then anything else was right, any act a man took to satisfy himself, murder, theft, torture” (1455). By reclaiming the attitude of the police officers, the man living underground is able to hold the same power that they had when they accused him of murder. This understanding through his double consciousness exposes him to the social injustices that exist between black and white people. He comes to the realization that laws and rules that govern the world do not apply to police officers. Because of the trauma that Daniels experienced, he attempts to take control of his life by changing the way in which the jewels are valued. When the police are searching for the criminal of these jewels, he secretly watches them feel the same frustration that he endured when he is trying to prove his innocence. This is an attempt to set the balance of power equal and to claim his identity because the police officers, as a society, labeled him with a misrepresentation of his race.

In her play, The Dutchman, Amiri Baraka uses the characters of Clay Williams and Lula to show the harmful psychological effects that stereotypes, and prejudices have on one’s identity. She uses the experiences of Clay to show that society will never fully accept African-Americans. While Clay is sitting on the train, Lula repeatedly tells him that “I
 know 
you 
like
 the
 palm
 of
 my 
hand” (679). Despite the fact that Lula initially claims that she does not know anything about him, her assumption that she can “knows” Clay originates from the belief that all black men are the same. Clays interaction with Lula is representative of the internal conflict that he and fellow African-Americans have with white culture. As an individual, he constantly finds himself trying to please Lula, while also passively hiding his anger towards her white culture. However, when Clay is no longer able to keep his composure, he finds himself losing his sanity. Through the use of Clay’s double consciousness, Baraka is able to show the physical and mental dangers of assimilating into white society, while allowing one’s roots to be diminished.

The use of one’s double consciousness has given African-Americans the ability to know when to code switch, a tool that has the power to save an individual’s life. “Friday Black”, written by Nana Kwame Adjei-Brenyah, is a collection of short stories that deals with the harsh realities that African-Americans endure on a daily basis. The first story, “Finkelstein 5” is told by a young man named Emmanuel, who uses his double consciousness to be aware of how he is being perceived. When he is forced to confront white people, Emmanuel undergoes a stereotype threat that allows him to be aware of how he is being stereotyped. Because of his anxieties, he finds himself measuring his blackness on a scale of 1-10. In the midst of all of the racism that exists towards African-Americans, Emmanuel’s double consciousness forces him to confront the reality that white privilege will override justice. This is the case for George Wilson Dunn who is acquitted for beheading five black children because he is threatened by their choice of clothing. After the verdict flooded the news, Emmanuel no longer lived a passive life, instead, he used his double consciousness to come to the realization that black people do not hold the same importance, as white people. Because of his skin color, he will be under surveillance and scrutiny from a white society, where he will never be considered as an equal counterpart to white people. He comes to the realization that he is “foolish enough to believe that there is a difference between good and evil” (23). Because of his newfound knowledge about the world he lives in, Emmanuel gathers the courage to demand justice.

Throughout the history of African-American Literature, the use of one’s double consciousness has either hindered the ability for an individual to seek their true identity or it has given them the insight to recognize the power that they hold. The use of my double consciousness has not only given me the ability to understand that I am the one who can determine my identity, but it has allowed me to realize that I was living in a state of “two-ness”.

Works Cited

• Adjei-Brenyah, Nana Kwame. Friday Black. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2018.
• Baraka, Amiri. Dutchman: A Play. London: Faber and Faber, 1967. Print.
• Douglass, Frederick, and William L. Garrison. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. Wortley, near Leeds: Printed by Joseph Barker,1846. Print.
• Du, Bois W. E. B. The Souls of Black Folk. New York, N.Y., U.S.A: Penguin Books, 1989. Print.
• Ellison, Ralph. Invisible Man. New York: Vintage International, 1995. Print.
• Hughes, Langston, Ezra Pound, Prentiss Taylor, Hugh H. Smythe, and Mabel M. Smythe. Montage of a Dream Deferred. , 1951. Print.
• Johnson, James W. The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man. New York: Penguin Books, 1990. Print.
• Larsen, Nella. Passing. New York: Penguin Books, 1997. Print.
• Washington, Booker T. Up from Slavery. New York, N.Y., U.S.A: Penguin Books, 1986. Print.
• Wright, Richard. Eight Men. Cleveland: World Pub. Co, 1961. Internet resource.