This essay uses theoretical perspectives of social sciences relevant to human growth and development by demonstrating the socialisation process and the impact of family structures on the normal development of Gerry. It uses the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to explore the effects of poverty on Gerry’s infancy and it will use Balter, Catherin & Tamis-Lemonda to support Maslow’s philosophy needs. Furthermore it will go on to use Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis to show the effects of attachment during Gerry’s infancy. More still with the use of Erikson’s stages of identity versus role confusion to discuss Gerry’s adolescence, the theory of generativity versus stagnation to explore his adulthood developmental task of his contributing and stagnation to society and finally the psychological crisis of ego integrity verses despair to explain the effects and causes during his development in middle adulthood. However, other psychologists theories will be used to support Erikson’s theories or critic them.
During his infancy, 0-2 years by Piaget (1936) (cited in Crawford and Walker 2009 p 22), Gerry and his family experienced poverty because his father had been made redundant. This means that Gerry’s family could not afford to meet his basic needs.
According to Maslow’s pyramedical model (1970) ( cited Steers 1998: p21 ) lower -level needs such as food, clothing and shelter have to be fulfilled to a reasonable degree before the more advanced need levels such as self actualisation, esteem, love/ belonging ,and safety are met. It can be argued that the failure of Gerry’s family to meet his basic needs had a profound effect on his development. This argument is supported by Balter, Catherin & Tamis- Lemonda. They argue that “children growing up in poverty develop developmental delays in intellectual development. Social, emotional and behavioural problems” (Balter, Catherin & Tamis- Lemonda 2003: p.391) (cited Chafel, 1993 and Garbarino, 1993).
Poverty goes hand in hand with gross inequality, unemployment and adverse consequences for poor people and society as a whole. Deprivation experienced by poor families affects their quality of life, their health and life expectancy and the education outcomes of their children. Poverty brings despair and fear” Rebach and Bruhn (2001: p. 369).
This argument is supported by Spode and Saracho, (2006) (cited in Duncan and Brook-Gunn, 1997), who say that “children growing up in poverty develop more emotional and behavioural problems than children who live in above the poverty line. This is because early cognitive and behavioural outcomes show to predict later school success”.
Another challenge that Gerry encountered was maternal deprivation. This occurred when his mother was in hospital during the birth of Lily and as a result, Gerry had to be looked after by his grandmother.
According to Bowlby’s (1953, 1969) (cited in Smith, Cowe and Blades 2004 p106) maternal deprivation hypothesis, “children should not be deprived of contact with the mother during a critical period when the primary attachment relationship is being formed”. He also believed that both mother and baby were predisposed biologically to stay in contact and only this relationship would allow normal development. However, critiques of Bowlby like (Oakley 1981) (cited in Holmes 1993: p. 45) argue that to generalise that any separation of mother from child in the first three years of life is likely to be damaging is unwarranted. Oakley further argued that there is no harm in entrusting the infant to the care of a responsible grandmother or baby-minder.
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However, Archer (1992: p.32) states that Hinde and his colleagues studied the effects of shorter periods of separation from a mother on later behaviour in young rhesus monkeys. The outcomes from the studies indicated by the infants experienced mild disturbance and frustrating situations. It can then be argued that Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypotheses is better placed in explaining what Gerry went through during his separation from his mother.
Another challenge that Gerry faced in his infancy was sibling’s rivalry. This took place at the arrival of the new born Lily. Dun (1993) (cited in Shaffer 2009; .p 388) argues that “after a new baby arrives, mothers typically devote less warm and playful attention to the older child, who may respond to this perceived neglect by becoming difficult, disruptive and less securely attached. This results into a spirit of completion, jealousy or resentment between siblings”. It can then be argued that the birth of Lily when Gerry was barely two years old might have left Gerry feeling neglected and unwanted because his mother had to give her attention to the new born Lily.
Furthermore, Gerry experienced a long-term effect of the extreme war-related trauma which led him to suffer greater emotional difficulties and environmental distress in life. On top of that he experienced more stress when he moved homes from a familiar environment and away from his peers. According to (Bell et al 1990 and Giffoed 1994) (cited in Bell, Greene, Fisher and Baum. 2001), it is augured that environmental distress examines the relationship between the person and his physical environment. More still, Main at al (1985) also adds that the adolescent can become disorganised and disoriented by the loss and trauma if the traumatic experience is not resolved. It can be argued that the war had a profound psychological effect on his development as a 12 year old boy by 1945.
Another issue in Gerry’s adolescence was lack of positive attitude towards education in school although he changed this attitude while in the army and even chose to pursue an engineering career. This is because Gerry had grown up in an environment where most people worked in the factories and had low levels of education; he believed that his destiny was to work as a factory labourer since he had no environmental support especially from his father that inspired him to pursue education higher.
According to Piaget’s (1984) (cited in van wormer, Besthorn and Keefe 2007) theory of cognitive development, school related concerns about intelligence, achievements and behaviour of learning are accumulated gradually as a function of environmental support. The Social Learning theory posits that children learn and model their social and cognitive behaviour by observing and imitating adults in their environment (Bandura, 1971). Therefore it can be argued that Gerry did not like education because he had no role model.
However, it is notable the time Gerry was about to leave the military school, he was faced with the challenge of knowing who he was and what he was going to be upon returning to the community. Having been born in a poor, uneducated family and neighbourhood, it was time for him to ponder whether to remain as he was in his community or to independently identify himself.
According to Erikson (1975)’s psychosocial development, it appears that Gerry was faced with a stage of identity versus role confusion where adolescents redefine themselves. It should also be noted that events that happened in Gerry’s adolescence seemed to have had a more buffering and compensatory effect than his depriving earlier experiences (Bowlby, 1988). The army offered him the opportunity to learn the engineering trade and one could argue that he may have found replacement experiences in form of role models and focus on career direction which prompted him to stay on even after the national service. At this stage, Gerry realised that he did not have any qualification and because of that, life would be difficult for him upon return to civilian life.
However critics of the psychosocial model argue that Erikson’s findings were based on clinical observations and his work lack ecological validity or statistical analyses. Although critics do hold such opinions, Rutter, (2003) points out that research results strongly support his notion on basic trust, identity, intimate relationship and the developmental crises. (Rutter, 1993 cited in Ewen, 2003). It can be argued that Gerry’s identity versus role confusion was resolved by the army by offering him the opportunity to study engineering.
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Between the age of 40-65 by Havinghurst cited Karin and Walker, (2009, p 98) Gerry was in his middle adulthood, he faced a life with triviality, stagnation, and decline due to the detachment that happened to him during his infancy. According to Bowlby’s, (1969, p. 194) attachment theory, he says that early experience in childhood has an important influence on the development and behaviour later in life and an evolutionary component; “The propensity to make strong emotional bonds to particular individuals is a basic component of human nature”.
However Hazen and Shaver, (1987) argue that the pattern established in childhood has no impact on later relationships.
More to the above, Feeney and Noller (1993) say if a child experiences avoidant attachment during infancy, as adults, they will tend to have difficulty with intimacy and close relationships. Such people do not put quality time in relationships, are not bothered when they end and normally avoid intimacy by using excuses (such as long work hours), or may fantasize about other people during sex. Their research also holds that adults with an avoidant attachment style are more accepting and likely to engage in casual sex.
However Wagner (1987) argues that an adult should not be blamed for the attachment styles formed in infancy, because what ever happened during that time is not necessarily identical to that demonstrated in adult romantic-attachment. This is because a great deal of time that has gone by between infancy and adulthood. Therefore intervening experiences have played a big role in Gerry’s attachment styles. Those described as ambivalent or avoidant in infancy can become securely attached as an adult.
More to the above he had little to do with his parents especially his father and neither did he have a good relationship with his son. This was because during Gerry’s infancy he missed out on the father-son relationship, therefore one can assume he did not get proper supervision during his adolescence and less bonding with his father hence made him have poor parenting skills. According to Bandura’s (1971) social-cognitive learning theory, he says behaviour is learned through observation and imitation.
However, Watson and Skinner’s (1920) theories of classical and operant conditioning disagree with Bandura by saying that all behaviour is learned as a response to external stimuli or environment. The classical occurs when an organism learns to respond in a particular way and the stimulus does not evoke that type of response and with the operant conditioning, an organism learns through rewards and punishments. It can then be argued that Bandura’s social-cognitive learning theory better placed Gerry’s learning of behaviour.
At the age of 51 Gerry should have been looking back at in his memories and feeling fulfilled with his life, but he was faced with depression and found it hard to accept the death of his mother and father even if he did not get on well with them, the loss of relationship with his son and partners.
According to Erikson, achieving a sense of integrity means fully accepting oneself, one’s accomplishments, and coming to terms with mortality. Accepting responsibility for your life and being able to undo the past and achieve satisfaction with self is essential. On the other hand, Gerry may have looked back at his life with a sense of doubt or gloom over the life’s worth, hence resulting in a feeling of despair.
This led to Gerry not being compassionate, more reflective and judicious, thus less tyrannized by his inner conflict and external demands.
More still it is seen that Gerry had a number of loses in life and less love for others, like Edina, Elizbieta and his son Emo, retired on heath grounds.
All in all, Gerry’s early life has been extremely disrupted; he has had two care placements in total as well as many changes of caretakers during his first year. Evidently Gerry did not have a strong sense of bonding with his family and did not have the opportunity to develop a secure attachment during his infancy and childhood. During his middle adulthood he tried to develop an attachment when he got engaged and married to Edina, but due to his effects of separation during his infancy and childhood his internal working model is of mistrust. This led him to be promiscuous. Poverty goes hand in hand with gross inequality, unemployment and adverse consequences for poor people and society as a whole. Deprivation experienced by Gerry’s family affected his quality of life, health and life expectancy and his education outcomes it also caused him despair and fear.
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