Racism can be described as the prejudice and discrimination against people based on their ethnicity or race. It was previously thought of as a particular way of thinking and acting that referred to the idea of human races, and the differentiation and ranking of groups and individuals in terms of their natural phonotypical or genetic attributes (Wieviorka, 1997). However, this point of view did little to sufficiently explain the variations in this derogatory way of thinking and acting towards others. These variations are thought to be a consequence of cultural influences - sometimes referred to as 'neo-racism' or 'new racism' (Wieviorka, 1995) or aversion racism (Gaertner and Dovidio 1986). This perspective of racism insists that the images of racial differences are not natural or biological, but are contained in language, religion, tradition and national origin. These theories share the view that there is a conflict between deep-seated emotional antipathy towards racial out-groups, and modern democratic values that exert pressure to behave in a non-prejudiced manner. In other words, negative feelings about ethnic minority groups - that are based on previously learnt racial fears and stereotypes - attempt to blend in and be justified with the modern values of society. The following discussion is going to examine three main psychological theories - the social identity theory, discursive theory and the psychodynamic theory. Using these theories, the essay will attempt to examine at what level(s) is racism experienced and for what reasons. Is it a 'normal' / natural assumption, a fixed entity, or it is something that can be changed or even eradicated? The discuss hopes to answer whether it is an interpersonal process that exist within groups or institutions? Alternatively, can racism be explained purely by the characteristics of the individual?
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To discuss the potential reasons for racism, an examination of the social psychological theories will be useful. The main theory relevant in the study of racism is the Social Identity theory. This model rests on four assumptions, it claims that, interpersonal and group behaviour are separate phenomena and that human cognition is designed to streamline perception of the social world in a socially adaptive and meaningful way. Social identity theory is essential to the discussion of racism. Its overall contribution towards the understanding of racism -is that a way to streamline our perceptions of the world - is to relate things to status and power. This supports the assumption that society is structured into distinct social categories, which are hierarchical in terms of power and status, for example; men and women, black and whites, Catholics and Protestants. Finally, social identity theorists believe that people have a need for relatively positive self-esteem. To gain this positive self-image the individual seeks to create an identity that is often derived from one's membership of social groups. It is different from the notion of personal identity, which is the part of the self concept that derives from personality traits and idiosyncratic personal relationships one has with other people (Turner, 1982). This theory concentrates more on explaining group dynamics and how people behaviour within groups. For example the notions of ethnocentrism, in-group favouritism, inter-group differentiation and the perception of self, out-groupers and fellow in-groupers. Ethnocentrism and in-group favouritism refers to how people in a given group evaluate preference for all aspects of one's own group relative to other groups. Therefore, this could explain the existence of racist behaviour - the group belief that one group is better/more favourable than the other, leads to the assumption that the 'other' group is less favourable. Together with inter-group differentiation - which refers to behaviour that emphasises the differences between one's own group and other groups -can therefore influence people to act in prejudice and discriminatory fashion - to accentuate the favourableness of the in-group. Therefore inter-group differentiation also serves to boast positive self-esteem.
Applying the psychodynamic theory to racism helps us to understand the personal or psychological reasons why a person may act in a racist way. The psychodynamic theory assumes that there is a fixed amount of psychic energy available for the human mind to accomplish psychological activities, after completion of the psychological activity, the aroused energy is dispelled and returns to a state of equilibrium. Dolland et al, (1993) argue that personal goals entail psychological arousal to aid their achievement, if the goal is achieved; the mind goes back to its equilibrium state. However, goal achievement can be impeded or frustrated and the psychological energy remains activated. The psychological system is then in a state of disequilibrium, which is believed to be only corrected by aggression. Dolland et al (1993) attempt to demonstrate its relevance to the aspect of racism, for example, if a group of people are frustrated in their goals by another group which is too powerful or unlikely to be aggressed against, the aggression is displaced onto a weaker group (such as a ethnic minority group) that acts as a scapegoat. For example, some British citizens may be frustrated by the unemployment situation in the UK, and may then target asylum seekers as their focus of aggression. However, one might ask, why do certain people feel and act this way towards others, and other people do not. Adorno et al (1950), attempt to explain this through the existence of the authoritarian personality type. They argued that certain people are bigots, who are prejudiced against all minorities. These people are inclined to feel in such a way because they have a personality type that includes the characteristics of respect for and deference to authority and authority figures, obsession with ranking and status, and a tendency to displace anger and resentment onto weaker groups. However, there are problems with this approach of explaining prejudice and discrimination against others. It fails to accept the existence of any power struggle or other socio-cultural factors of society - and how this can effect how a person thinks and perceives their world. Pettigrew (1958) tested the authoritarian personality theory in a cross cultural comparison between South Africa, North America and South America. He found that whites from South Africa and South America were significantly more racist than those from North America. However, there was no apparent difference as to how authoritarian they were. Therefore, Pettigrew (1958) concluded that personality may act as a predisposition for some people to be prejudiced in some contexts, however, the existence of a culture of prejudice, which represents social norms that legitimise prejudice thinking, is both necessary and sufficient for the occurrence of racist behaviour.
Social psychologists may also help to understand and combat racism through examining the discursive theory of racism and conducting discourse analysis. This involves the de-construction of stereotypical categories that have been formed through society's use of language in the media, through politics, education and laws. It is to insist on the existence of 'the other', the other being a culture that poses as a threat to one's own cultural identity. Cultural racism is therefore based on the principle of inferiorisation and/or rejection (Wieviorka, 1997) and thus puts the 'other' either in a subordinate position from the superior group or in segregation from it. For example, the Apartheid - the political structure in South African, between the late 1940's and early 1990s that separated the different people living there and gave particular privileges to those of European origin. Alternatively, we could consider Nazism in Germany in the Second World War, whereby those of Jewish culture were subordinated and exploited -simply based on their race - and Hitler's ambitious for a Super Race - that was considered different and superior from the Jews. Examination of the racial discourse helps us to recognise how the 'other' is constructed - i.e. from hatred or fear and how this is then acted upon. For example, focusing on the discourse of inferiorisation refers to the presence of the other in the society in question, which in turn refers to social relationships of domination and exploitation. However, the social problems which exacerbate these fears must also be taken into account. For example, exclusion, poverty, unemployment and the social interests of the better off, all contribute in the encouragement to adopt strategies of social and racial segregation. Alternatively, if racism is attributed by the act of rejection of the 'other', this asks us to consider the idea of incompatibility of cultures. Differentiating between these two strands of discourse - helps social psychologists to distinguish the potential reasons behind the racism, and thus potential solutions. For example, those who feel racism is only a social problem, feel that it can be solved through mobilisation of groups and individuals - to re-distribute and combat problems of poverty, exclusion or exploitation and the eradication of the Capitalist system (Couper and Martuccelli, 1994). Alternatively, those who consider it a cultural problem may see its solution in cultural awareness and education. However, we must be careful not to assume that racism will be stopped just by putting pressure on its 'causes' - it is also necessary to consider and act upon how racism is maintained within society. Therefore, it is important to regulate and prevent its occurrence - e.g. through the application of social policies at work etc and promoting opportunities for members of the most deprived minority groups to get them more involved and integrated into mainstream society.
The challenge of social psychology is firstly to be able to detect racism. This involves the use of unobtrusive measures, where socially desirable behaviours and attitudes are inhibited (Crosby et al, 1980). One way to measure prejudice is in terms of social distance. For example, racist attitudes persists in contexts that are of close social distance to the individual (e.g. marriage), however, they may cease to exist in less close social relations (such as attending school) - Schofield, (1986). Another example is found in India, where those who subscribe to the caste system might typically accept a lower caste person into their home, but will not consider marrying one (Sharma, 1981). Prejudice can also surface inadvertently in people's relatively automatic cognition. This can be demonstrated in a study by Gaertner and McLaughlin, (1983), who gave participants pairings of the social categories 'white' or 'black' with various negative or positive descriptive adjectives. Participants had to decide whether the pairings were meaningful or not to the given social categories. Although there was no tendency for white participants to pair the negative words more strongly with either group, participants were much quicker at deciding whether positive words were meaningful or not. Gaertner and McLaughlin, (1983) attributed the speed of the responses to indicate an existing attitude in the mind of the participant. Therefore, it can be concluded that in this study, an element of racist attitude is present for the sample group in question - as they more speedily exerted a more favourable attitude towards their own race (white), opposed to the 'other' race (black).
What is common for all of these theories is the emphasis of the 'other' - and how the concept of the 'other' - as a 'weaker other' - often elicits racist thought and behaviour. It is unfair and clearly not accurate to assess racism in light of just one theory. For example, the concepts within the social identity theory can help us to explain why racist behaviour occurs, yet it is not without the examination of the discursive theory of society, that we begin to understand why one might act in such ways. For example, it is not enough to say that people act in favourable terms to the group that they most identity with - and less favourable to groups that they do not identity with. As it is also often through external influences like the government, education, laws and the media, that perpetuate these believes and justify racist behaviour. Therefore, social psychological approaches to the study of racism highlight the fact that social and political influences are the key to the development and maintenance of racism. Therefore, to consider social identity theories and discursive analysis is to put emphasis on the means of which we are allowed or permitted to act and how we justify these actions as being right and proper. Or, in the case of preventing racist behaviour, we can use these theories to look at and distinguish patterns of behaviour, and how social legislation and policies has, and may have, an impact on how we behave. Therefore, to assume that the influences of political, education and the media are a major driving force in the maintenance of racist beliefs, it would be reasonable to assume that these same forces can act to provide positive representations of different racial groups. For example, a possible strategy for combating racism would be in the regulation and restriction of racist practices in the workplace - through the implementation of equal opportunities, for stereotypical ideas of racial groups to be eradicated from representations on the TV and in the press, and for educational material to promote equality and multi-culturalism. To educate people about the different cultures and racial groups around the world can only help to share knowledge and experiences and combat ignorance - which is often the cause of racist behaviour in the first place.
However, to consider these two theories in isolation is to assume that the individual has no agency - and that the individual has no real control over their thoughts or behaviour and the way in which they choose to live their life. The psychodynamic approach would disagree with these claims, arguing that one is pre-disposed to a certain way of thinking and it is because of their personality type that they are more prone to feel and behave in an authoritarian and racist manner. The psychodynamic approach would argue that it is not society that makes us feel this way, but our own biological make-up. This approach therefore accounts for racism as 'human nature' - a case of maintaining one's psychological equilibrium. The psychodynamic approach is useful to the study of racism and its potential prevention - as it discusses the psychological processes within the individual that may account for underlying reasons why racism occurs. Understanding the individuals likelihood of aggressive behaviour, can help to understand what triggers in society will encourage racist behaviour. The good thing about the psychodynamic approach is that it holds the individual responsible. Therefore, it is up to the individual to change their behaviour - and not rely on or blame society for their racial prejudice. Therefore, education has a major role in the promotion of racial harmony, if one is educated and knowledgeable about society, its structure, its inequalities and equalities and the different people living within it, the individual is in a better position to work out a more positive and balanced way of interacting and respecting people. Thus, the role of social psychologists can help to distinguish patterns of behaviour and strategies that may best work to encourage each individual to progress and function through life as equally as possible.
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