Describe cultural variations in family arrangements and critically examine psychological research on the effects of these family arrangements on children’s development. Marriage is the basis of households that are formed; a neolocal household consists of a married couple creating a new home. One main family type arrangement is the nuclear family. Lee (1987) this arrangement consists of three main positions. The members being within the household sets a presence, so the number of members does not make a nuclear family more compelling. In a patrilocal family, the new couple join the house of the husband and form a new home. In a matrilocal family the home is set up in the wife’s birth home. Matri and Partilocal families are also extended/joint families; this is where members of different generations also live in the house. The older generations uphold a power role and are highly respected.
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The joint/ extended families usually consist of three or more generations in one house. However, there are “non- residential extended families” this arrangement is where they live near to the home and communal activities and eat with the other household. Extended family arrangements has its advantages such as being supportive in hard times, however there are disadvantages such as them becoming interfering in the independence and restrict the other younger members life Goodwin, Adatia et al 1997.
Family structures are mostly dependant on social and economic circumstances as well as cultural values. Joint families are more likely to see having a bigger family as an important source of secure labour and importance. This is mostly deemed to be important when the wage labour is not the principal economic form. A hierarchical and authoritarian structure is often developed gradually within a joint family structure; this is in order to operate in a smooth manner, and to stress obedience and respect for authority and family reputation. Stropes-Roe and Cochrane, 1989.
Extended family living situations have often been exaggerated; this was noticed by Goode 1963, when he researched family systems. An example of this is from family structures in China, whereby the family structure was under attack as the newer generations saw this structure within the household as a negative issue, as they stated that “….the traditional family is being wiped out without being replaced….” Levy 1949. In the rural areas of China the extended family arrangement is becoming extinct, as the census revealed that the nuclear family is becoming a more common arrangement, reasons for this change may stem from economical reasons, as high mortality rates have increased in the poorer regions due to financial issues which made it difficult for families to extend their homes to accommodate for more people.
However, as this change was occurring in China a new form of living developed, this was known the “stem family”. Stem families consist of parents, their unmarried children and one married child with a partner and children. This arrangement suited children living with their parents due to the lack of housing made available to new buyers and the newly married couple may take advantage of the free accommodation whilst saving to buy further accommodation and the babysitting facilities whilst both parents attend to work. However, instead of contributing more to the elders within an extended family, the young would now benefit more and taking more than they are returning Tsui 1989. This shows that Chinese families can adapt very well in order to suit the socio-political conditions and the environment within the modern family. Overall this demonstrates the functional value of family which is to provide solidarity and material support in difficult times Yang 1988.
Also like China the extended family arrangement is rare and only dominant amongst large landowners as they are able to support their large families. Research carried out from Al-Thakeb 1985 found that the extended family has never been the main family structure amongst families living in Arab cultures. This was found by studying nine different Arab countries. Although Al-Thakeb stated that the extended family has never been the main family form in Arab cultures. Due to the family being an independent wedded family this does not mean that the family bonds are weak. As in Arab countries it has been known that the relationship between family members is strong, due to living in close areas to their brothers and sisters, so this arrangement has its rewards as economic cooperation and emotional support is available for the family members.
Within the Iran households, housing is a major problem which results in extended families being reduced in size, whilst intensive migration among the rural population has led to the weakening of larger household groups. In turn has led to the separation of extended families, whereby new couples leave their parents and form their own household separately.
Meanwhile in Japan a different concept has been applied within household arrangements. The Japanese family structure is like the American family household arrangement; a nuclear setting. Economical reasons are adapted within families here as well, as the retired parents are more likely to live with their children due to economic reasons.
However due to many cultural variations in family arrangements, children’s development in society may differ; although there are some similarities as well. The difference in how parents socialise with their children, affects the child’s socialisation on children’s development. There are many different parenting styles that are adopted. Steinberg et al 1989 put forward suggestions of three different parenting styles. The first one being psychological autonomy which is the degree to which parents encourage their children to be independent. The second description is parental involvement this is where parents are actively involved in their child’s lives. Lastly, the third style is behavioural control this is measured by the degree of how much the parents try to control their child’s behaviour and activities.
There are two main types of societies within cultures, one being collectivist: this is where the society is involved with the community’s life. The community encourages obedience to authority. In collectivist societies obligation is highly ritualised. The family arrangements that tend to stem from these societies are extended/ joint families mainly. On the other hand there are individualistic societies whereby children are encouraged to develop their own opinions. The family arrangement that mainly stems from this society is the nuclear family. Research into comparing the different society’s views on parental upbringing. Larano 1997 conducted research in Canada. Children from different ethnic minorities a list of individualistic and collectivist activities and a parental monitoring scale. The results found showed that collectivist children perceived their parents as being more controlling and less involved with them than individualistic children. This research suggests that the children may have come to these conclusions as they live a particular life, for example if a child lived the collectivist extended family life, then it could be argued that the child may perceive the other way of doing things as the better way as it differs from the norm they have to abide by.
In China there is continuing evidence for strong parental nurturance and support even when the child has grown up, although the Chinese parenting style is largely authoritarian and involves high levels of regulation from parents in order to ensure “proper” behaviour. This doesn’t mean that children fail to develop autonomy, but may mean that they do so at a later age than children in the more individualistic cultures was found by Schneider et al 1997.
One comparison that has been made into the difference between how a child is brought up in cultural difference within families is between Japanese and Israeli families. In Japan children are strongly bonded to their families, with the Japanese mother keen to harmonise her needs with those of her child, which shows the family arrangement between mother and child to be an important one, with the child growing up with a close bond with its mother. Japanese children are constantly in contact with their mothers and are rarely left alone Tobin 1992. Babies are often carried around on their mother’s backs and there is a constant non-verbal interaction between parent and child. In comparison the Israeli mothers put forward a more independent upbringing style, and favour the idea of children being independent and self sufficient. As a result of this the Israeli mother may encourage the child ability to be alone as an example of their child’s emotional independence, while the Japanese mother may value the child development of social relationships.
In Britain different ethnic groups have different attitudes towards the socialisation of their children and their development. Asian families tend to be based with an extended family arrangement. Asian families and in particular Muslim, parents are highly protective of their daughters, fearing British society’s drugs problems and its undue emphasis on sex Singh Ghuman 1994.
In some cultures polygamous marriages are accepted, this is where a person may be married to more than one partner. On the other hand in most cultures monogamous families are more commonly recognised; one single partner. However, it would raise the question as to whether such a family arrangement affects the development of children Alean Al-Krenawi et al investigated this matter. 146 participants were involved in the study; they consisted of children who were involved in either polygamous family or a monogamous family. The children were tested through a questionnaire which was later analysed. The children from monogamous families had higher levels of learning achievement than the children from polygamous families, which in turn meant that the monogamous children adjusted to school framework better, unlike the polygamous children as much. This shows that these children suffer a disadvantage from living within such a large family, as they experience an overall educational disadvantage and social difficulties as well. The Results also showed that the conflict rating of the children from a large family background; polygamous had a higher rating. It was also found that the father’s level of education tended to be inversely correlated with family size in terms of both number of children and number of wives.
These results show that due to these learning difficulties children are faced from living in such situations, that now the teachers my become aware of such problems, as it may be assumed that children from polygamous families may drop out of school early, and may be more at risk of falling for bad habits such as drugs and theft. It was stated that the problem should be overcome by focussing on the recognition of polygamy as a particular risk factor, along with the expectation that over time higher levels of paternal education may well lead to smaller families and more attention to the emotional and social needs of the children. Due to the findings issues within the polygamous families such as tension caused from other wives and step siblings, could be worked on, as it may be an issue affecting the children’s development. It could be argued that the wives could perhaps be encouraged to perceive one another as partners rather than opponents, and in turn the half siblings could also follow this principle to help improve the overall family relationship within the household.
However there are limitations to this research such as, individual differences have not been considered as some children may just not be very into school life, and that the failure to achieve well isn’t to do with the family arrangement at home. Another limitation is that the polygamous families that were researched only had two wives, so it cannot be widely generalised to polygamous families as they differ in sizes, therefore it cannot be stated that even larger polygamous families have a bigger affect on children’s development. A further limitation is that the study was based on a sample of one race, which again makes it harder to generalise the results to other races. With all these limitations it must not be forgotten that the research still shows us that living arrangements and differences such as monogamous and polygamous families do impact the children educational development at school to some extent.
Nuclear and extended families affect children’s development as some research has suggested that these living arrangements may cause some psychological stress in childhood. An examination of lifestyles within the inner cities of non-industrial countries highlights the changes in family life this was noted by Abdel
Rahim & Cederblad, 1980
An example of this is from Sudan families as they traditionally consist of three or more generations, with siblings living side by side and sharing domestic duties and economic responsibilities. Marriages occur early and are arranged by parents; they are frequently between cousins or other family relations Abdelrahman & Morgan, 1987.Authority in these extended households usually rests with the grandfather. The grandmother plays a central role in child care and the transmission of cultural identity to her grandchildren. In turn, the extended family is embedded within the wider communal structure of the tribe. This type of social structure encourages conformity to standards of conduct which are seen to be acceptable according to tradition and so promotes social stability. At the same time, gives a sense of communal responsibility for the upbringing of children. Up until the age of weaning a mother has the main responsibility for care. After weaning the responsibility for care and discipline is shared within both the immediate family, and to a lesser extent among the other responsible adults living with the immediate family.
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In the research conducted by Abdel Rahim & Cederblad, 1980 the relation between emotional and social development and family structure in the Sudanese capital, Khartoum, was examined. Children between the ages of 4 and 9 living in extended and nuclear families were compared on mothers’ ratings of a range of childhood problems. Analysis revealed that children in nuclear families had more conduct, emotional, and sleep problems, poorer self-care, and were more likely to be over dependent than those living in extended families. They were also less likely to be breast fed, to be weaned later, and to have grandmothers involved in child care. Linear multiple regression revealed that, of these 3 childcare factors, grandmother’s involvement was the strongest predictor of normal social and emotional adjustment. The possible protective characteristics of the extended family are discussed in relation to the importance of the grandmother as maternal advisor, social support, and socialization agent.
However this research does face some limitations such as results of the study may be influenced by factors not studied here. First, it is possible that mothers’ reports were affected by some systematic bias in reporting. Although both groups reported spending the same amount of time with their children, reporting bias may be due to differences in the mental health of nuclear and extended family mothers Lancaster, Prior, & Adler,1989 or variation in the standards of conduct deemed acceptable by them Sonuga-Barke, Minocha, Taylor, & Sandberg. These questions centre on the relation between actual deviance and parental perceptions and cannot be addressed without direct observation of the child’s behaviour.
Second, the relation between child development and family structure reported in the study might be mediated by the effects of stressful life events, such as migration. In a recent study. El Farouk (1991) examined the makeup of a representative sample of the large (34% of the total population; Population Census Office, 1989) migrant population living in Khartoum. More than half of the 266 migrant families studied included three generations. This is similar to the proportion found in the non migrant population and suggests that migration would not selectively affect childhood adjustment in the nuclear families in the present study.
The findings imply that the meaning and protective significance of factors
is conditional on cultural context as well as developmental status and history. Global ideals of human conduct operating within different cultures directly influence the meaning and significance of personal and intergenerational
relationships within families. The impact of family life on child development is mediated by a set of beliefs about the extent to which a particular family structure is consistent with those ideals. In Sudanese culture, as in many traditional societies, social life is governed by ideals of communal interdependence, intergenerational harmony, and social conformity motivated
by feelings of collective responsibility and filial piety. In extended families, the physical proximity, emotional intimacy, and (grand-) parental authority are consistent with these ideals.
So far the issues that have been mentioned are that family arrangements can affect children development in educational aspects such as the children’s performance at school, and the differences between nuclear and extended family arrangements in regards to development. Another aspect that some research has found that family arrangements may affect is the nutrition and physical growth of children in their development this was researched by Tinkew and DeJong 2004. They looked into the influence of household structure and resource dilution features. The study aimed to compare the impact of different types of household structures such as single parent, multiple parents, extended and cohabitating, and the influence this had on children’s nutrition. They also aimed to investigate whether household structure and household resources interact to affect child nutrition.
The results were collated from the Jamaica 1996 Living Standards Measurement Study Survey and other sources. The findings showed that living in a single parent household and cohabitating household increases the odds of stunting for children. The analysis also indicates that children in single parent families with low income and have siblings are more likely to have low height for age, as well as low income extended families with siblings. The key policy implication that is shown through this study is that household structure is important for understanding children’s nutritional outcomes in the Caribbean. This research was beneficial as it highlighted that household arrangements does have some impact on children’s development in regards to health issues.
However, it can be criticised as the findings would be more reliable if a larger sample was used and the use of longitudinal data was used instead of cross sectional data, as this would be useful for capturing changes over time in children’s nutritional statuses as well as changes in household structures. Longitudinal data would be especially useful for understanding how changes in household structure can influence child nutrition given the variability of households in the Caribbean, and other changes in composition across the developmental cycle of the household. It has been suggested that further research should also include measures of parental time allocations which would improve the understanding of how time used as a resource is used to affect child nutrition. Household structures effects could work through a variety of mechanisms, and a careful study of these processes is needed especially with regard to future research on this issue in the Caribbean context. In regards to whether this research is useful, it shows us that there can be some cultural family arrangement issues that are proven to impact the nutritional development of children showing us that there aren’t just psychological differences; which most research suggests there is.
Overall it could be suggested that there are many cultural variations within many different family arrangements. However, it is not completely clear whether the family arrangement directly affects the child’s development for reasons such as every child and their development is different and we therefore cannot pin point what factors specifically affect development. Other factors such as sexual orientation, wealth of families, social status and class are all areas that could be researched further to help link the affects within child development.
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